And Identity? I asked.
He said: Self-defense…
Identity is the daughter of birth, but in the end
she’s what the owner creates, not an inheritance
of a past […]
so carry your land wherever you go,
and be a narcissist if you need to be.
-
Introduction
In his pamphlet Maʿna al-nakba (The Meaning of the
In the years following the Nakba, Palestinian intellectuals worked in a general climate of national shock, dispersion, and despair. To cultivate the will to persevere, to resist and return, required an endeavor within Palestinian culture in parallel with the Palestinian struggle for national liberation, a struggle through which contemporary Palestinian national identity took shape.
In his book On Issues of Palestinian Culture, Palestinian poet
The task of the cultural activity taken up by individuals following the Nakba was not limited to only helping Palestinians deal with the harsh existence that they suddenly found themselves living in, but also to protecting their past, which too had become vulnerable to being occupied and plundered or erased and distorted at the hands of the colonial present, which had begun working to displace and expel the Palestinians not only from their physical geography, but also from their history, by forcefully imposing its own narrative onto their history; armed with a sense of divine right, it also mythologized this narrative.
Early Expressions of the Nakba as Theme
The state of shock caused by the Nakba led to a period of a stunned silence, which explains the delay in cultural expressions that addressed this harsh collective experience. Early visual expressions of the Nakba’s tragedies can be seen in paintings done in a realist style, such as the 1953 works Jurʿat maʾ (A Gulp of Water) and Ila ayn? (Where To?) and Sanaʿud (We Will Return, 1954) by
The Nakba also manifested itself in different ways through the works of poets
The Forefront of Palestinian Poetry under Israeli occupation after 1948
The Nakba left the Arab minority that remained in occupied Palestine in total isolation from the rest of the Arabs and their language and culture under threat. It created a profound, seismic shock that ripped into their social fabric, followed by a profound silence. However, as
In the late 1950s, a number of remarkable poets from the younger generation began to emerge inside occupied Palestine, their poetic voices resounding in a defiant tone that rejected the occupation. The most prominent among these were
These three poets—Darwish, Zayyad, and al-Qasim—had a profound influence on the Palestinian collective psyche; they managed to resoundingly break through the walls of isolation and alienation that Palestinians inside Israel felt trapped behind, their poems giving them back their sense of humanity, restoring their pride in their identity as Palestinian Arabs, and reconnecting them to the rest of the Arab world from which they had been cut off.
Palestinian poet
Ghassan Kanafani was the first to draw critical attention to the growing poetic and literary movement inside the occupied territories. In his book Adab al-muqawama fi Filastin al-muhtalla 1948–1966 (Resistance Literature in Occupied Palestine 1948–1966), he introduced to Arab readers its most important voices at the time and articulated the concept of adab al–muqawama, or resistance literature, and the concept of iltizam, or commitment. Kanafani’s writings laid the foundation for resistance literature, emphasizing that being human in and of itself is a worthy cause, even if his early works, such as his short story collections Aalam laysa lana (A World Not Ours, written between 1959 and 1963) and Mawt sarir raqm 12 (A Death in Bed No. 12, 1961) were cloaked in pessimism and philosophical reflections on death, exile, and being a refugee. At their core, these early works still urged the reader to engage in resistance in the most profound sense of the word. His eventual involvement in the armed struggle movement, and his assassination in the prime of his youth and creative peak, showed his ideas to be consistent with his actions. In the words of Mahmoud Darwish, the ink of Kanafani’s pen had in it the force of blood, making him one of the most influential writers in molding the defining features of the Palestinian individual’s character.
The spirit of resistance found within Palestinian poetry was soon transferred to the visual arts and began to manifest itself in the works of many artists such as Ismail Shammout, whose style moved toward symbolism in paintings such as Taqa tantazir (Young Men Waiting, 1961), Arusan ala-l-hudud (Newlyweds at the Border, 1962), and al-Tariq (The Road, 1964). Other artists whose work expressed this spirit were
As poet Zakaria Mohammad observed, Palestinian intellectuals found it seemingly required of them to provide pieces of cultural evidence and proofs of the existence of the Palestinian people and of their right to their stolen homeland, Palestine, after the "Other" had rewritten it as a divine myth that was above any criticism, in Darwish’s words. This led to a growing awareness and sense of responsibility of the necessity of preserving Palestinian memory and of crafting a Palestinian narrative of the conflict that would safeguard and affirm Palestinians’ historical rights. In this context, and as part of this endeavor, the
The Founding of the PLO
After the establishment of the
The PLO played a central role in leading the burgeoning cultural movement as a way to uplift the project for national liberation. This began to create a degree of cultural and psychological unity among Palestinians, as well as creating a framework that fostered most forms of cultural work and expression. These efforts became an active laboratory in which a national consciousness and markers of a collective identity were developed to bring together the various parts of Palestinian existence that were scattered across the geographies of the homeland and the places they had been exiled or had emigrated to. Furthermore, a narrative began to be constructed that would come to refute the Zionist narrative that nullified Palestinian existence, its past, and its history, by confronting it head-on with a Palestinian narrative that would spread the spirit of resistance and sumud, or steadfastness, needed to successfully realize the project of national liberation.
Under the aegis of the PLO, the
The Naksa of 1967
The Naksa was an important turning point in the course of Palestinian history, reflected in the rise of the fidaʾi (guerrilla resistance fighter) movement, which was accompanied by a burgeoning secular nationalist Palestinian identity. It also led to the first meeting since the Nakba between the Palestinians of 1948 (often referred to as Arabs/Palestinians of the interior) and their brethren in the West Bank and
The literature produced in 1948-occupied Palestine took a leading role in speaking for Palestinians, significantly imposing its presence in various domains of cultural expression. In 1968, Emile Habibi published his short story collection Sudasiyyat al-ayyam al-sitta (The Sixtet of Six Days), whose stories were primarily about the aftermath of the June 1967 defeat. The shuʿaraʾ al-muqawama or “resistance poets,” as they came to be collectively known, also continued to maintain their strong and growing presence. In his collection Ashiq min Filastin (A Lover from Palestine, 1966), Mahmoud Darwish cemented the powerful metaphor of the land as fused with the beloved, which itself symbolized the inseparable bond between the personal and the collective. This metaphor then began to be reproduced in the visual arts as well. Darwish also introduced the image of “the Palestinian wound" as a metaphor for the impact that the Nakba left on Palestinians. Meanwhile, a powerful new poetic voice emerged in the West Bank, that of
These and other writings had a great impact on Palestinians by deepening their sense of being a collective and motivating them to continue to rise up, resist, and remain steadfast. The literary language and artistic symbolism and the perceptions it carried of the Palestinians and Palestine were able to bore deeply into the collective psyche, by introducing a new terminology that the Palestinians began to make use of to express their hopes and inner sense of being. Such expressions cemented within them a collective spirit and force and created new traits that would come to define Palestinian identity.
In the field of cinema, the 1957 film Siraʿ fi Jarash (Struggle in
Ghassan Kanafani may have been the first to pose the question of identity in such an existential and unprecedentedly sharp way in his novella ʿAyid ila Haifa (Returning to
The Refugee Camp
The refugee camp holds a significant place in Palestinian consciousness as one of the most vivid, enduring, and painful manifestations of the Nakba. Through it, the Nakba is patently visible as an ongoing reality, where its meaning and what it embodies continue to be reproduced. The camp has kept the stories of the Nakba alive and present, passed down and retold from one generation to the next, reproduced just as one generation breeds the next. This allows for the creation of the images and for symbols of the homeland to continue to be produced, which in turn continues to fuel Palestinians’ nostalgia and collective longing for return. The camp figures prominently in the writings of Kanafani, who made it play an essential role in crafting his characters’ traits and determining their destinies. His writings express a rejection of the camp's painful reality as a representation of Palestinians’ loss of both their land and their dignity. In this way, Kanafani was the first to pose the transformation of the image of the camp from being a site of misery, poverty, and theft into a wellspring of revolutionary spirit to continue on the path to return to Palestine.
The refugee camp also appeared powerfully in the poetry of
Ismail Shammout painted tableaus from camps in
Emile Habibi, who had started to establish himself as a major figure in Palestinian fiction alongside Kanafani and Jabra Ibrahim Jabra, published his novel al-Mutashaʾil in 1974, translated into English as The Secret Life of Saeed: The Pessoptimist. In this work, he utilized elements from oral tradition to look at the lives of Palestinians in Israel with both depth and black humor. Habibi explored their oscillation between pessimism and optimism and their crisis of identity—caught between denial, hostility toward their identity, and reclaiming it. Theater director
Connection to the Land and the Pulse of the Street
During this period, visual and plastic art also began to flourish in the land occupied in 1967. Many of the artworks were centered around the land and the Palestinian individual’s connection to it—often symbolized by the figure of the fallah and fallaha (the male and female peasants). Artists focused on depicting villages with their natural scenery, their homes, olive trees, and various customary rituals, as seen in the works of Ghabin,
This approach by artists may be seen as part of an effort to construct a Palestinian narrative establishing the authenticity of Palestinians’ relationship to their land and their history and to debunk the narrative of the outsider Zionist project. In this vein, some creators of art and scholars went as far back as the Canaanite roots to look for a distinct Palestinian identity. However, this approach was not without its critics. Zakaria Mohammad, for example, argued that it risked falling into the trap of mythologizing, thus making Palestinians fit into the Zionist narrative, which often puts forth myth and legend as history. He saw it as a distraction from viewing the Zionist project as one of European intruders and claimed it inadvertently reinforces claims of people like Meir Pa'il that the Zionist movement, which initially sought to create an Israeli national identity, played a role in creating a Palestinian national identity as well.
Artistic and literary works that celebrated the Palestinians’ connection to the land—whether through farming it or defending it, as an arena of struggle or as a cause for struggle—also acquired a prominent status in the process of constructing and defining national identity. As part of its trajectory, this trend also firmly enshrined the depiction of the Palestinian woman as a beautiful, physically powerful peasant wearing the traditional Palestinian thawb, present within the natural landscape and working the land alongside the men, reaping whatever fruit it bears and harvesting its crops. Alternatively, she appeared as the beloved alongside her fidaʾi lover. The photograph of the militant
Many expressions of Palestinian culture came to focus on folklore, invoking its symbols, rituals, and practices, as well as manufacturing new symbols (such as the olive tree, the orange, the cactus, the key, and the map) in an attempt to clutch at worlds long lost. Poster art, due to its reductive nature and ease of circulation, made the spread of many of these symbols overused and hackneyed. This constituted a burden on the creative process and its aesthetics, which had consequences when it came to the taste of the general public.
The visual arts from this period were also rich in figurative depictions, aiming to assert the presence of Palestinians as human beings expressing their Palestinianness in situ, in terms of their connection to the land and their defense of it and the capacity of the figures depicted to carry a spectrum of symbols, gestures, signs, and emotions.
The field of visual arts in areas of Palestine occupied in 1948 had a limited impact during this period due to the state of isolation in which it was evolving, along with its problematic relationship to the Israeli art world. This remained the case until the signing of the Oslo Agreement
, when it became possible to learn about the work of artists such as
In terms of cinema, the films of the Palestinian revolution were largely documentary, with the exception of the film Returning to Haifa (1982), an adaptation of Kanafani’s novella directed by Iraqi filmmaker
Most Palestinian cultural activity demonstrated an ability to critically engage with the pulse of the street and keep pace with the events and transformations that Palestinians everywhere were experiencing. Writers and artists took turns playing the role of guide, visionary, and clairvoyant of the path to take, as well as the role of commentator on the events of the moment and on the Palestinian journey and experience. This can be observed in many important occurrences such as
The same applies to creative responses to the
Palestinian society continued to mobilize its latent power through the growing role taken on by grassroots movements, student organizations, and labor syndicates. Many new associations were established and started to take initiatives in fields such as culture, healthcare, and agriculture, while cultural activity at the local level carried on its work dedicated to preserving memory, cultural heritage, and spurring Palestinians to remain resilient and resist. In this context, the
The era of the thawra, or Palestinian Revolution (a term that refers to the family of institutions, political parties and armed groups that operated under the institutional umbrella of the PLO until 1982) also saw an increased presence of imagery of the martyr in Palestinian cultural production. Darwish reinforced this imagery in his collection A‘raas, where the martyr’s image was associated with that of a bridegroom, and the act of martyrdom with that of a wedding celebration and procession, where ululations and henna are omnipresent. This imagery was recycled in numerous songs that were widely heard during the
Cultural Work of Palestinian Intellectuals in the West
Palestinian intellectuals who had begun to rise to prominence in the West for their various intellectual, cultural, literary, and artistic production also contributed to the expansion of Palestinian presence in international academic, cultural, and artistic forums. Their presence offered a more diverse set of images of Palestinians that also had a resulting impact on the image of Arabs and Arab culture and its relationship to the world. The most prominent of these Palestinians was Edward Said, the Palestinian-American who remained haunted by that wound within his identity, his language, and his very name;
The Palestinian cultural presence continued to grow steadily on a global level, taking increasingly diverse forms that would, in later decades, reach unprecedented dimensions.
Artistic Expression vs Political Commitment
The trajectory of the formulation of the national identity was influenced by conservative cultural and social structures or rigid political and organizational frameworks that did not give much leeway to individual expression outside the collective framework and thus were, by definition, incapable of being critical of the contexts in which they were )re(produced. These frameworks also did not pay proper attention to the question of diversity and difference, which sometimes led to the deliberate overlooking and marginalization of important artistic works that bore aesthetics, preoccupations, and questions that were at variance with the priorities of the era that prioritized the homeland and its liberation above all other matters, including that of individual freedoms; in the 1970s, there was no room for individual voices that dissented with the voice of the collective.
This sometimes put artistic freedom at odds with the duty to serve the task of national liberation, as happened for instance with the writer
It would happen again, to varying degrees, with other creators, especially in the field of the visual arts, whose artistic work opened other horizons and aesthetics that were far removed in their features from those that reigned over Palestinian visual art during this period. The most important of these artists are
Cultural Symbols, Icons, and Folklore
The seemingly firm alignment between the cultural sphere and the national liberation project led to the creation and consolidation of a number of iconic images and symbols, which began circulating widely among Palestinians as elements of a universal vocabulary, evoking for them a sense of oneness of their past, present, and future destiny. Thus, the olive tree, the keffiyeh, and the key gained high symbolic value in the Palestinian semiotic domain, while the traditional dabke (dance) and tatriz (embroidery) were elevated to the status of sacred cultural practices. Oranges and orange trees also came to hold significant symbolic value, as they embodied the Palestinian coastal cities, especially Jaffa, in contrast to the olive tree that stood for the mountainous regions of Palestine. Thus, the presence of the orange tree alongside the olive tree symbolically united the mountains and the coast as two parts of one homeland. Similarly, the prickly pear cactus also came to occupy a high symbolic status in various forms of Palestinian cultural expressions as a perennial witness to the destroyed Palestinian village, and for its symbolic association with the motifs of waiting and return, as seen in the works of Tawfiq Abdul-Aal and Asim Abu Shaqra.
The tribulations of Palestinians and how they suffered on their via dolorosa toward freedom also drove artists to invoke various representations of the imagery of the cross and Jesus Christ and to draw from its lexicon of symbols and its semiotic and metaphoric field. This led to an increasing appearance of the motif of crucifixion and bearing the cross in many works of poetry and literature and in visual production. Likewise, the experience of imprisonment, especially in Israeli jails, became a recurring theme in literature, art, posters, and folk songs, given that prison was considered yet another critical arena for the liberation struggle, where there was direct confrontation with the occupier. As such, it became an essential component of Palestinians’ consciousness and the different permutations for the existence of this consciousness.
The use of folklore and its symbols in Palestinian cultural production hit its peak during the 1970s. Zakaria Mohammad believes this phenomenon became an obsession and a symptom of how disconnected the nation was as a community from its past. The cultlike worship of folklore flourished during this time of disconnection.
The village had an overwhelming presence in post–Nakba cultural expression as a symbol of the past that stood for roots and authenticity. It took up the most space in the process of forming and defining Palestinian identity, often at the expense of the city, which was seen more as a project for the future. The Nakba had devastated the Palestinian coastal cities, which had once stood for the project of Palestinian modernity, particularly Jaffa, which rivaled
Theater, Music, and Poster Art
Jerusalem was where the
Music too played an active role in shaping and expressing the Palestinian psyche during the era of the thawra, by keeping a spirit of struggle and resistance alive and glorifying martyrdom. Much of this music was like a chorus that echoed the voice of the collective, as was the case with groups like
In music, the band
Overall—but particularly in the Palestinian territories occupied in 1967—the arts scene witnessed a surge in cultural production that incited people to resist and revolt. For example, Fathi Ghabin’s 1984 painting al-Huwiyya (Identity) is considered by some as prophesying the outbreak of the First Intifada. This painting, along with many other iconic pieces, was reproduced on postcards, which greatly facilitated its circulation en masse.
Songs were not the only vehicle for the widespread dissemination of many iconic poems that became deeply etched into the collective Palestinian consciousness. Poster art enabled the spread and dissemination of iconic visual works and served as an effective tool in building a visual lexicon and a symbolic language capable of addressing the Palestinian people, one that drew from the symbolic and semantic inventory that the cultural project had assembled as it kept pace with the Revolution and the Palestinian nation-building project. Through poster art, Palestinians commemorated important national and cultural occasions, events, and personalities. Posters were also an effective space in which to demonstrate acts of participation and solidarity, and the Palestinian national liberation struggle and its accompanying cultural movement accumulated an exceptionally massive tally of posters that chronicled significant themes and events in the history of the Palestinian people and the path they took in building their national identity.
The Role of the Beirut Period
The institutions under the PLO attempted to consolidate cultural and media work, especially following the organization’s decision to establish the
With its location and cultural standing within the Arab world, as well as the cultural openness and freedom it offered, Beirut gave Palestinian cultural activity a great boost and opened it up to the rest of the Arab world and the broader world outside. This contributed to Palestinian culture’s growth and the broadening of the sphere in which it operated, the tools and vocabulary it used, and the way in which it represented itself, which in turn led to a greater openness in Palestinian identity to the Other, making Palestinian culture acquire a more universal, humanist dimension. Thus, the understanding of being Palestinian broadened and came to mean a conscious choice to belong to the Palestinian cause for the values of freedom and justice it stood for. The holding of the
The Palestinian cultural milieu in Beirut represented a vibrant space and a sophisticated front for joint work and transnational, cross-border solidarity. This raises an important question about the concept of Palestinian culture during this era in view of the contributions made to it by many non-Palestinian writers and artists, such as
In its Beirut phase, the Palestinian nation-building and cultural identity-building projects succeeded in bringing together a scattered people under a common identity, an identity whose soul was imbued with the spirit of resistance, and with an optimism in its yearning for freedom, an identity that was not inward-looking, but rather open to the broader Arab world and to the rest of humanity around it in its quest to carry out the national liberation project, albeit remaining conservative in its basic components. While the artwork made by Palestinians from the 1948-occupied areas focused on the Palestinian in terms of his ties to the land as a liberation and return through armed struggle and resistance, with a particular focus on making women visibly present in the Palestinian people’s march of resistance and revolution.
The exodus of the Palestinian Revolution from Beirut marked a tragic moment in the journey of the Palestinian struggle, distancing it even further from the promised land of Palestine. It caused a hush in the voices of those articulating this dream, while more pessimistic voices grew louder. After the city was besieged by the Israelis in 1982, the PLO’s relocation to
Several texts and books by Palestinians were published that dealt with the Palestinian experience in Beirut, among them Ah Ya Beirut (O, Beirut!, 1983), a collection of essays by
During this time, the West Bank and Gaza Strip experienced an increase in settlement activity, and Israeli military control spread more deeply into all aspects of life. A growing number of Palestinian laborers from both regions worked inside Israel, which brought about a sense of alienation and frustration at living within a harsh reality and its manifestations on the ground. This also led to the beginning of a disintegration or breakdown within Palestinian society, the earliest effects of which would later surface during the First Intifada in the phenomenon of killing collaborators.
The most prominent Palestinian universities were established in the 1970s, and through their student and grassroots organizations, they began to play a pioneering role in both the national liberation struggle and in advancing Palestinian society, which made them arenas for an active, effective influential movement for Palestinian culture and the political struggle. The 1970s witnessed a growing poetry movement in the 1967-occupied territories. The writer and poet
The First Intifada
The Intifada brought the Palestinian cause back to the attention of both the Arab world and the international community with unprecedented force, thus ending an era of fear that the cause was being submerged under the hegemony of an ossified cultural discourse overburdened with hollow rhetoric and symbolism. The Intifada contributed greatly to liberating cultural activity from that historical obligation, so a large segment of Palestinian creators outside of Palestine felt a sense of release from the pressure they felt by the sense of duty to their nation on their creative freedom and artistic choices.
A new generation of important Palestinian poets also began to be more visible, reflecting essential transformations in Palestinian poetry. Their voices acted as a transitional bridge toward liberating poetry from the oppressive prevailing poetic aesthetics, evolving toward a quieter, subtler style of poetry more attuned to the spirit of the age. In this new wave, the individual poets’ personal world and experience had primary importance, where each poet’s main priority was with developing their own unique idiom and tone. The leading poets in this trend included Zakaria Mohammad,
The Intifada allowed the streets, not the poets, to have the final say and take the lead in all action, even as Samih al-Qasim released “Taqaddamu” (Advance!, 1988) and Mahmoud Darwish published “Ayyuha-l-marruna bayna-l-kalimat al-abira” (To those Who Pass Between Fleeting Words, 1988), which he interrupted his self-imposed retreat in Paris to write. (At the time, Darwish was focused on expanding his larger personal poetic project. In fact, his more creative and measured engagement with the Intifada came a little later in his 1990 poem “Maʾsat al-narjis, malhat al-fidda” [The Tragedy of Narcissus, the Comedy of Silver].) Suleiman Mansour also unveiled his famous painting, the aforementioned Sahwat al-qarya, in which he depicted a giant Palestinian woman occupying part of a scene from a Palestinian rural landscape, with peasant men and women emerging from between her legs, their features showing a clear sense of confidence, determination, willpower, and knowledge of their mission and the direction they were taking. Artists like Fathi Ghabin,
During the first Intifada, Palestinian women participated extensively in all forms of resistance and community action alongside men, youth and children; the Intifada opened up avenues for their potential for action and taking initiative. Alternative forms of cultural and artistic practice that could be disseminated more rapidly under the state of repression and siege by the occupation became more prevalent; thus, mural and graffiti art spurring popular resistance flourished, and songs recorded by local musicians like
The Intifada caused transformations in the work of some Palestinian visual artists, the most significant of which was a collective that called itself al-Tajriba wa-l-ʿibdaaʿ (Experimentation and Creativity), that included Suleiman Mansour, Nabil Anani,
During the Intifada, there was a rise in Palestinian feature films.
In 1992, Mahmoud Darwish published his collection Ahad ashara kawkaban (Eleven Planets), where he invoked the fall of Arab rule in
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